A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

PLANT NAME: Foeniculum vulgare Mill.

OTHER NAMES: Anethum foeniculum, F. capillaceum, F. officinale.

COMMON NAMES: Fennel [English]; xiao hui xiang [China]; adas [Java, Indonesia]; almindelig [Denmark]; fenchel, fenchle [Germany]; fenikkel [Norway]; fenoll, fonoll [Catalan]; fenouille [France]; finocchio [Italian]; foeniculum, maratrum [Latin]; hinojo [Spain]; inuju [Aymara, Kechua]; jinuchchu [Kallawaya]; koper wloski [Poland]; marathron ("to grow thin") [Ancient Greek]; mieloi [Basque]; shouikyo [Japan]: sohoehyang [Korea]; sanuf, bari-sanuf [Hindi]; shatapuspha [Sanskrit].

PHARMACEUTICAL NAME: (Fructus) Foeniculi Vulgaris.

NOMENCLATURE: Linnaeus included this plant in the genus Anethum, but the botanist De Candolle later placed it in a new genus called Foeniculum. Foeniculum was the name used by the ancient Romans for fennel. It was derived from the Latin word "foenum" which means "hay." The specific epithet "vulgare" means "common."

FAMILY: Apiaceae (carrot family).

CATEGORY: Warm the interior, expel cold.

PROPERTIES: Sweet, acrid, neutral to warm [China]. Sweet, bitter, cool to cold [India]. Warm and humid [Mexico].

PLANT PART USED: Mostly the fruit (sometimes called the "seed").

TOXICITY: There is no acute toxicity of the ethanol extraction in mice at 0.5 - 3 g / kg or chronic toxicity at 100 mg / kg per day. Interestingly, male mice gained significant weight while undergoing the chronic treatment, but not female mice [Shah 1991].
The oil is toxic to the liver and irritating to the kidneys. An overdose of the volatile oil can cause nausea, vomiting, pulmonary edema, and seizures. 5-20 drops of the oil can trigger convulsions and hallucinations.

CAUTIONS AND CONTRAINDICATIONS:
• Not in pregnancy.
• Allergic reactions, while rare, can occur with Foeniculum vulgare. 62% of plant coumarins come from the apiaceae family of plants; of which Foeniculum is one genus [Nielsen 1971]. Certain coumarins are known to cause photodermatitis. Fennel is known to cause photodermatitis or contact dermatitis. Those who are allergic to one apiaceae family member are often allergic to others.
• Not with estrogen sensitive cancer.
• Caution with diverticulitis, diverticulosis, duodenal ulcer, GERD, stomach ulcer, ulcerative colitis.

ENERGETIC CAUTIONS: Caution with yin deficient heat.

PREPARATION OF MEDICINE: Infused or decocted. Seeds may be ground, chewed or steeped in tea. Does well in tincture 1:5, 60% alcohol.

DOSAGE: 5–10 grams in formula.

MERIDIAN AFFINITIES: Spleen, stomach, liver, kidney.

WESTERN FUNCTIONS REPORTED: Abortifacient; alleviates the symptoms of "male menopause"; analgesic; anodyne [China]; anthelmintic [India (seeds)]; anti-fungal (essential oil); anti-inflammatory; anti-microbial; antipyretic; antiseptic; antispasmodic [India, Mexico]; antitussive; aphrodisiac [China, India (seeds)]; appetizer [India (seeds)]; appetite stimulant; aromatic; astringent; bactericidal (essential oil); balsamic [Japan]; calms the nerves [India]; cardiotonic [Dominican Republic]; carminative [Cherokee, China, Haiti, India, Iraq, Mexico,Turkey]; choleretic; calming for overactive digestive systems; cold remedy [Cherokee]; diaphoretic; digestive; diuretic [Dominican Republic, France, Haiti, Hippocrates, India, Mexico, Turkey]; emmenagogue [Haiti, Hippocrates, Turkey]; estrogenic; expectorant [China, Japan, Mexico, Research, Turkey]; facilitates birth; febrifuge; hallucinogenic; hepatic; hypotensive; increases libido; increases milk secretion; increases peristalsis; increases the digestive flora; lactogogue [China, Haiti, Mexico, Turkey]; laxative [India (seeds)]; mild stimulant; orexigenic; parasiticide [Turkey]; prevents influenza; promotes menstruation; promotes gastrointestinal motility; promotes mental alertness [India]; purgative [India (roots)]; reduces arterial blood pressure (water extraction); regulates the menses [India (seeds)]; respiratory stimulant; restorative [Turkey]; secretagogue; secretolytic; spasmolytic (essential oil); stimulant [Dominican Republic, India, Iraq, Mexico, Turkey]; stomachic [China, Dominican Republic, India (seeds), Japan, Turkey, Venezuela]; stops bleeding [Bermuda]; tonic [Cherokee, China, Kurdistan, Venezuela]; vermicide (essential oil) [Nepal]; weak diuretic (leaves) [India].

TRADITIONAL CHINESE ENERGETIC FUNCTIONS (~ = extrapolated):
1) Regulates the liver qi.
2) Harmonizes the stomach.
3) Warms the kidneys.
4) Removes cold and stops pain.
5) Soothes the urinary bladder~.
6) Benefits the eyes~.
7) Opens the lungs & clears cold phlegm~.
8) Dispels wind.

OTHER ENERGETIC FUNCTIONS:
Decreases: vata, pitta, & kapha [India]

CARDIOVASCULAR
• Hypertension.

DERMATOLOGICAL
• Dermatosis [Malaya]; sores [Haiti].

DIGESTIVE
"Fennel seede drunke assuageth the paine of the stomache, and the wambling of the same, or desire to vomite, and breaketh winde"
- - John Gerard, 1597
• Indigestion, gas, bloating, abdominal pain & distention, poor appetite [China, Haiti, Iraq, Malaya Mexico, Spain Turkey]; to prevent gas after eating [Universal (seeds chewed)]; dull abdominal pain with food.
• Because Ayurveda considers fennel energetically cool, it is used for digestive problems where hot spicy herbs might aggravate the patient [India].
• Nausea and vomiting [China].
• Acid stomach, heartburn [China, Haiti, Iraq, Kashaya (seeds chewed), Mexico, Pomo (seeds chewed), Turkey].
• Diarrhea; irritable bowel syndrome; rectal inflammation [China].
• Enteritis [China]; food poisoning [China]; hiatus hernia; weight loss [Medieval Herbalists].

HEAD AND THROAT
"The distilled water of the whole herb, or the condensate juice dissolved, but especially the natural juice,that in some counties issues out hereof of its own accord, dropped into the eyes, cleanses them from mists and films that hinder the sight."
- - Nicholas Culpepper

• Conjunctivitis and blepharitis (infusion topical); eye wash (seeds decocted) [Pomo, Kashaya]; poor vision [China, Hippocrates, Medieval Herbalists, Peter Holmes, Pliny].
• Gargle for pharyngitis; thirst [India (seeds)]; sore throat (gargle); toothache [China].
• Headaches.

HEPATIC
"The seed and the roots much more, help to open obstructions of the liver, spleen, and gall, and thereby help the painful and windy swellings of the spleen, and the yellow jaundice; as also the gout and cramps." - - Nicholas Culpepper

• Cirrhosis, gall bladder disorders; liver problems [Malaya].

INFECTION
• Dysentery, fever [India (seeds)].

MUSCULOSKELETAL / TRAUMA
• Arthritis, joint inflammation & muscular pain (essential oil topical); rheumatism [Malaya]; gout.
• Back pain [China], spasm [Haiti].
• Wounds [India (seeds)]; contusions, bruises, sprains.

ONCOLOGY
• Cancer [Europe, UK]; uterine cancer [China]; tumor [Italy].
• Side effects of chemotherapy and radiation.

PEDIATRIC
• While nursing, an infant may also absorb the fennel that is used to stimulate lactation. This can help to treat colic [Cherokee, China, Haiti, Mexico].
• Summer diarrhea with fever in children ("summer heat") [China]; digestive tonic for children; gas in children [Cherokee].
• Bedwetting.
• Cough in infants.

PSYCHOSPIRITUAL
"I suppose the reason of its benefit this way is because it is an herb of Mercury, and under Virgo, and therefore bears antipathy to Pisces."
- - Nicholas Culpepper

• Believed to repel witches (along with St. Johns Wort) during the Middle Ages, fennel was one of the nine sacred herbs.
• Said to give strength and courage.

REPRODUCTIVE
"The leaves or seed, boiled in barley water and drank are good for nurses, to increase their milk, and make it more wholesome for the child."
- - Nicholas Culpepper

• Insufficient lactation [China, Haiti, Latin America, Turkey]; mastitis.
• Lack of menses.
• Painful menses; irregular or delayed menstruation with clots [China].
• Gonorrhea [Ethiopia]; venereal disease [India (seeds)].
• Given to women in labor [Cherokee]; post partum [Iraq].
• Virility [China].

RESPIRATORY
"The seed is of good use in medicines to help shortness of breath and wheezing by stopping of the lungs."
- - Nicholas Culpepper

• Respiratory problems [China]; bronchitis, chest congestion, cough with thick white phlegm, wheezing, hoarseness, voice loss [China, Turkey]; to loosen phlegm; chronic cough (fennel syrup).
• Cold remedy [Cherokee].

URINARY
"Fennel is good to break wind, to provoke urine, and ease the pains of the stone, and helps to break it."
- - Nicholas Culpepper

• Sandy deposits in urine; urinary stones; strangury [China]; bladder pain; kidney problems.
• Enuresis [China].
• Night time urination.
• Testicle pain (roasted).

VETERINARY
• Small branches are placed in horses’ harnesses to keep flies away. Crushed leaves are used as flea repellant on dogs.
• Used for "cattle condiments."

OTHER MEDICINAL USES
• "The seed boiled in wine and drank, is good for those that are bitten with serpents, or have eaten poisonous herbs, or mushrooms."
- - Nicholas Culpepper

• Used to improve the taste of other medicines.
• Cholera [China].
• Low energy [China].
• Longevity.
• Hernia [China].
• Leprosy [India (seeds)].
• Parasites.
• Swallowing air [Haiti].
• Fluid discharge [China].
• Snake bite [China].

USE AS FOOD:
"Both the seeds, leaves and root of our Garden Fennel are much used in drinks and broths for those that are grown fat, to abate their unwieldiness and cause them to grow more gaunt and lank."
- - William Coles, Nature's Paradise, 1650

• The Romans ate young fennel stalks, and some varieties of fennel are used today as a vegetable. The leaves are used in salads and to flavor fish. The young stems can be used in soups. The cultivated bulbs are often better to eat than the wild crafted ones.
• Young leaves can be used as a garnish, added to cooked food and salads, or to flavor fish. This can be useful to help digest greasy meals. Leaves can be harvested year round.
• Seeds can flavor bread stuffing or cakes.
• Eaten during Lent to allay hunger.
• Fennel seeds have been used as a juniper substitute for flavoring gin, and are often used for flavoring "licorice" products. In fact, some of my Hawaiian teachers called this plant "licorice".
• Fennel has more isoflavones than soy.
• The smell and taste of fennel is dependant on the proportions of two chemicals. "fenchone," which is bitter, and "anethole" is sweet.

OTHER USES:
• Flowers used as perfume [Mexico].
• Insect repellant (dried herb).
• Flowers and leaves are mixed to make yellow and brown dyes. Seeds used as a dye for wool.
• Smoked as a tobacco substitute [Hopi].

ESSENTIAL OIL:
• The oil increases smooth muscle contractions in guinea pigs [Reiter 1985].
• Anethole is mainly found in the volatile oil.
• The essential oil is used in perfumes, cosmetics, and liqueurs.
• The essential oil prevents liver damage in rats caused by carbon tetrachloride [Ozbek 2003]. It is also antioxidant and antibacterial [Ruberto 2000].
• Antioxidant effects are comparable to alpha-tocopherol and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) [Ruberto 2000].

CONSTITUENTS:
• Volatile oils (80% anethole, dianethole, 5% estgole, fenchone, photoanethole).
• Flavonoids (kaempferol glycosides, quercetin, rutin). Coumarins (bergapten, imperatorin, marmesin, xanthotoxin). Sterols.
• Fruits contain pentosan, pectin, trigonelline, fenchone, seselin, anethole and choline.
• The plant also contains sesquiterpene, germacrene-D, b caryophyllene, d-pinene, phellandrine, anisic acid and anisic aldehyde. (There are many more constituents, too many to list. A list of constituents will be sent on request.)

POSSIBLE DRUG INTERACTIONS: Anethole potentiates streptomycin against tuberculosis in lab animals [Bensky 1986].

Menstrual cramps: Add Piper methysticum ('awa).
Poor digestion, nausea, vomiting: Add Zingiber officinale ('awapuhi päkë), Curcuma longa ('ölena).
Chronic, copious, clear or white lung phlegm: Add Cymbopogon refractus (wäpine), Citrus reticulata (tangerine) peel.

Bacterial cystitis: With Barosma betulina (buchu) and Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (kinnikinick).
Inflammation of the mouth and throat: With Rosmarinus officinale (rosemary), Salvia officinalis (sage) and Hamamelis virginiana (witch hazel) as a gargle.
Colic: With Verbena officinale (vervain), Glycyrrhiza glabra (licorice) and Melissa officinalis (lemon balm).
Lower abdominal pain that is aggravated by cold: With Lindera strychnofilia (wu yao) and Cinnamomum cassia (rou gui) [China].
Cough: Fennel oil with warm water and honey.
Colic: With Chamaemelum nobile (roman chamomile), Acorus calamus (shi chang pu / sweet flag rhizome), Alpinia officinale (gao liang jiang / galangal).
Gas, indigestion and diverticulitis: With Mentha piperita (peppermint) or Anthemis nobilis (chamomile).
Common cold or flu with fever: With Anthemis nobilis (chamomile) and Achillea millefolium (yarrow).
One of the "three cooling spices" along with Cuminum cyminum (cumin) and Coriandrum sativum (coriander) [India].
Bladder infection: With Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (bearberry).
Facial steam: With Achillea millefolium (yarrow), Lavandula officinalis (lavender), and Mentha piperita (peppermint).
Poor digestion: As a "cordial" with fresh Taraxacum officinale (dandelion) root and leaf; Gentiana leutea. (gentian) root; Mentha piperita (peppermint) leaf; Glycyrrhiza glabra (licorice) root; and Zingiber officinale (sheng jiang / ginger) rhizome [Naturopathic].
After a greasy meal: With Dioscorea villosa (wild yam); Podophyllum peltatum (mayapple) root; Taraxacum officinale (dandelion) fresh root and leaf; Chelidonium major (celandine) fresh root and tops; Eschscholzia californica (california poppy) fresh herb; and Mentha piperita (peppermint) oil [Naturopathic].
Swollen or tired eyes: With Monotropa uniflora (bird's nest). Infusion topical [Native American].
To prevent griping: From the use of Cassia marilandica (senna) [Native American].
To raise or lower the Qi: One source states that use with salt will lower the Qi, and use with wine will raise the Qi.

RANGE: Global. Native to the Mediterranean.

HABITAT: Upcountry areas, lots of sun. I don't think I've ever seen it below 2000'.

GATHERING: Seeds ripen in autumn.
On the mainland, fennel can easily be confused for poison hemlock.

PROPAGATION & CULTIVATION: In Hawai'i it shouldn't be propagated, as there is plenty to wild craft.

RESEARCH:
• Fennel lowers blood pressure in laboratory animals. This may be due to its diuretic effects [El Bardai 2001]. Arterial blood pressure in rats is lowered without changing heart or respiratory rate in intravenous boiled fennel leaf tea. Cold infusion was inactive. A histamine antagonist blocked this action [Abdul-Ghani 1988].
• In studies of frogs, fennel seeds aid in expectoration by stimulating the cilia of frog esophagus [Muller-Limmroth 1980].
• The seed extract is estrogenic [Albert-Puleo 1980; Malini 1985].

NOTES 'N QUOTES
"Both leaves, seeds, and roots thereof are much used in drink or broth, to make people more lean that are too fat."
- - Nicholas Culpepper

"The roots are of most use in physic drinks, and broth that are taken to cleanse the blood, to open obstructions of the liver, to provoke urine, and amend the ill color in the face after sickness, and to cause a good habit through the body."
- - Nicholas Culpepper

• Fennel may have been responsible for the immortality of Prometheus in Greek legends.
• Throughout history, fennel has been used as medicine in China, Egypt, Greece, & India. Hippocrates and Dioscorides both used fennel to stimulate lactation in nursing mothers. When Pliny (Caius Plinius Secundus, A.D. 23-79) noted that snakes shedding their skins would frequent patches of fennel, he commented " ...when they cast their old skins, and they sharpen their sight with the juice by rubbing against the plant." Thus he recommended it for visual problems, and even blindness. Pliny had no less than twenty-two formulas that included fennel.
• Fennel water and seed are mentioned in a Spanish farm document from 961 A.D.
• Charlemagne spread the use of fennel throughout Central Europe and grew it on imperial farms. And the household of King Edward I once bought 8 1/2 lb. of fennel as one month's supply.
• The common giant fennel (Ferula communis) is actually not fennel, but is a large cousin in the same family.
• One of the most energetically "warm" plants in the Hawaiian pharmacopea, fennel is only found at altitude. The seeds and leaves are useful for indigestion, to warm up a "cold" constitution, or for copious clear or white lung phlegm. The (cultivated) bulb as food is also good for this.